Mothers of new babies often feel shame whether they breastfeed their babies or not, a new study has found.

UK researchers followed the progress of 63 mothers ranging in age from 19 to 42. For just over half of the women, this was their first child, while the remainder already had other children.

Twenty-eight of the women were solely breastfeeding, 11 were solely formula feeding, seven were mixing formula and breastfeeding and the rest of the women had already started weaning their children onto solids and were giving these with either breastmilk, formula milk or a mixture.

The study found that while women wanted to succeed at being a ‘good mother', ‘the experience of birth and of being overwhelmed by new motherhood, cultural influences, and lack of preparation for motherhood and infant feeding made some women feel anxious, fearful and dependent'.

It also noted that while some women had little or no experience of breastfeeding within their own family or personal networks, others felt under pressure to breastfeed. This pressure was seen as ‘an additional burden within the already bewildering state of new motherhood'.

The study found three main ways in which shame was experienced by mothers - exposure of women's bodies, undermining and insufficient support.

In relation to the exposure of women's bodies, the researchers noted that ‘health professionals handling of women's breasts in an attempt to facilitate breastfeeding was often negatively internalised by women'.

"The potency for shame was related to the level of public exposure, and the significance of those involved. For some women, the objectification and manipulation of their ‘sexual' organs in front of professionals, and often their partners, induced intense distress and humiliation," they said.

One of the participants described how the midwife ‘literally just got hold of my breast and squeezed it', adding that she was ‘mortified', especially as her partner was present.

Having to ask for assistance also highlighted the women's perceived deficiency ‘in the performance of a natural activity'. The fact that they could not ‘manage breastfeeding' lead to lowered confidence.

Many of those who breastfed also had difficulties with doing so in public. While only a few of the participants did breastfeed in public, some said they were ‘stared at' or ‘tutted at'. Most of those who would not breastfeed in public admitted it was because they feared such a response.

However, for those who did not breastfeed, similar judgements were made, with some people making comments like ‘why are you not breastfeeding?'

These women often felt especially shamed in front of health professionals, with some saying they felt ‘scared' about informing professionals that they were formula feeding.

Meanwhile, shame was also felt when it came to the issues of undermining and inadequate support.

Some women who breastfed sought out more support, but did not have their needs met, leading to them feeling like a failure again. Some said that in hospital, they were told to ‘stop buzzing' for staff or they felt that staff were under too much pressure and they were therefore afraid to ask for help.

Non-breastfeeding mothers on the other hand were often made to feel like they were ‘second best', ‘a bad mother' or someone who was ‘depriving' their child.

They blamed themselves for any negative health or emotional implications. For example, one woman felt she had taken the ‘easy option' by not breastfeeding and then blamed herself when her son developed eczema and other allergies.

One woman described herself as a ‘failure ‘ for having ‘given in'.

"Our findings highlight how negative reactions and responses to women's bodies, abilities and infant feeding methods, undermining and inappropriate support from others can lead breastfeeding and non-breastfeeding mothers alike to feel inadequate, defective and isolated," the researchers said.

They noted that breastfeeding mothers ‘may risk shame if they breastfeed, particularly in public, due to exposure of the sexualised maternal body. Those who do not breastfeed may experience shame through ‘failing' to give their infant the best start'.

"Breastfeeding and non-breastfeeding mothers may also experience inadequate support, judgement and condemnation, leading to feelings of failure, inadequacy and isolation. Strategies and support that addresses personal, cultural, ideological and structural constraints upon infant feeding are required," they added.

Details of these findings are published in the journal, Maternal & Child Nutrition.